The ark of the covenant is one of the most important items signifying YHWH’s presence in the Old Testament-but it is also one of the most mysterious. The main idea of the ark of the covenant was YHWH’s presence with his people. This presence traveled with the people in the wilderness but was primarily centered in the tabernacle and temple.
Since the ark of the covenant was kept in the innermost part of the tabernacle and the temple, it naturally makes readers curious about what it would have looked like. Because it contained the Ten Words (Ten Commandments), it was a visible sign of the covenant YHWH made with his people. But the ark of the covenant disappeared near the end of the Old Testament. How could something so important and powerful vanish?
Finding the ark would be one of the greatest discoveries in archaeology, but first we need to properly understand it. Why was it made of wood overlaid with solid gold? Why did it have two golden statues of “cherubim” - odd creatures with wings? Why was it carried on two poles?
Joshua passing the River Jordan with the Ark of the Covenant. 1800, oil on wood, Benjamin West.
We know Moses saw it first in a holy vision from God, but who was Moses? I believe that only by connecting Moses to the heretic Pharaoh Akhenaten, can we suddenly make much sense of the lost Ark’s origins, functions, and even start to understand where it could be hidden.
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Biblical Descriptions and Construction
The main text about the construction of the ark of the covenant is in the book of Exodus, which includes both the command to make the ark of the covenant (Exod 25:10-22), as well as the description of Bezalel making the ark (Exod 37:1-9). The Hebrew word used to describe the ark (ארון) is used to refer to only two other items in the Old Testament: a coffin (Gen 50:26) and a chest to hold money (2 Kgs 12:10-11). This has led to the English translation “ark”-which simply meant “box” or “chest” in older forms of English.
While it would be hard to overcome convention, it might be better to translate this as “the box of the covenant” or the “covenantal box,” since the word “ark” mainly appears in religious contexts today. The exact dimensions of the ark were “two and a half cubits in length, one and a half cubits in width, and one and a half cubits in height” (Exod 25:10). God’s instructions also call for the ark to be made from acacia wood (Exod 25:10).
Acacia wood was among the offerings given to construct the tabernacle (Exod 25:50), and other parts of the tabernacle were also made of acacia wood (Exod 25:23; 26:15; 27:1; 30:1). The craftsmen were to cover the ark with gold on both the outside and inside, as well as put a golden rim or molding around it (25:11). In addition, the Israelite craftsmen were to make four golden rings that went on the feet of the ark, two on each side (25:12). The rings held two poles made of acacia wood that were covered with gold and designed to remain permanently within the rings of the ark to enable worshipers of YHWH to carry it (25:13-15).
The craftsmen then made a כַפֹּרֶת for the ark. This word is usually translated “mercy seat” or “atonement cover,” because the related verb כפר often refers to atonement (Exod 21:30; Lev 1:4). However, in this text it primarily refers to a cover for the ark. On top of the seat, the craftsmen were to put two cherubim, one on each end facing the other with their wings overshadowing the ark. The cherubim were not to be placed on the cover but connected to the cover (Exod 25:18-21).
Since the text provides few details about their appearance, as far back as Josephus it has been unclear what these cherubim looked like (Ant. 8.73). Most of the cases where cherubim appear in the Old Testament are in relation to the ark of the covenant. Outside of the ark, cherubim appear in the garden of Eden (Gen 3:24), as a mount for YHWH (Ps 18:10), in Ezekiel’s vision of YHWH leaving the temple (Ezek 9-11), as a descriptor for the king of Tyre to mark his presence in the garden of Eden (Ezek 28:14, 16), and in Ezekiel’s vision of the temple (Ezek 41:18-25). Biblical descriptions of their appearance vary, but wings are a common element.
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These cherubim might be human winged forms. However, based on ancient Near Eastern parallels, these cherubim might also be winged sphinxes: human-headed winged lions. The account of the construction of the ark in Deuteronomy 10:1-8 is somewhat different from the one in Exodus: YHWH commanded Moses to make the ark to bring it up the mountain to hold the second copy of the Ten Words that YHWH would write. No mention is made of the cherubim or other ritual functions. The ark as described in 1 Kings is very similar to the ark in Exodus.
As in the tabernacle, the ark was placed in the temple’s Holy of Holies (1 Kgs 6:19). Unlike in Deuteronomy, the cherubim play a central role in this account (1 Kgs 8:6-7). One additional detail in the 1 Kings account is that when Solomon put the ark into the temple, the poles were so long that they were visible from the Holy Place, but were not visible from outside the temple (1 Kgs 8:8).
Contents and Placement
The Exodus account says that “the testimony” was to be put into the ark, and that “testimony” is later revealed to be the Ten Words (25:16, 21; 31:18). The author of Hebrews (13:4) clarifies that the ark contained, along with the Ten Words, some manna and also Aaron’s staff that budded (13:4). The source of this tradition is that YHWH commanded Moses to have Aaron put some manna before “the testimony” (Exod 16:34). Since this word is consistently used to describe the ark-“the ark of the testimony”-it is most likely referring to the ark.
Aaron’s staff that budded was also commanded to be placed before the testimony (Num 17:10). Besides the indirect reference to the ark in the manna account (Exod 16:34), the first reference to the ark in the Bible is the detailed instructions on how to construct it (Exod 25:10-22). The ark was to be placed inside the Holy of Holies, screened by the curtain (Exod 26:33; 40:3, 21), and anointed (Exod 30:26). YHWH warned Moses not to allow Aaron to approach the ark of the covenant except on the Day of Atonement (Lev 16:2). On that day, the incense would cover the cherubim so that the high priest would not die (Lev 16:13).
Historical Journey of the Ark
The descendants of Kohath were to guard all the furniture of the tabernacle, including the ark (Num 3:27-32). When Israel moved in the wilderness, Aaron and his sons were to cover the ark with the veil of the screen, a covering of goatskin, and a blue cloth (Num 4:5-6). The ark led them in the wilderness to bring them to a place where they could rest (Num 10:33). After YHWH condemned Israel to wander in the wilderness for forty years, the people rebelled against this command by attacking Canaan.
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The Philistines Place the Ark of the Covenant in a Temple of their god Dagon. c. 1450, Battista Franco Veneziano.
In Canaan, the ark played a central role in the crossing of the Jordan River, as the river was blocked as soon as the feet of the priests carrying the ark were standing in the river. The priests then stayed there until all the people had passed, at which point the priests left the riverbed and the water returned to normal (Josh 3-4). Likewise, the ark played a prominent role in the conquest of Jericho, as the priests carrying the ark led the people as they circled the city (Josh 6). After the defeat at Ai, Joshua tore his clothes and fell on the ground in front of the ark until evening, when YHWH spoke to him (Josh 7:6). During the time of the judges, the ark was at Bethel and available for the Israelites to approach and inquire of God (Judg 20:27).
The ark played a central role in Israel’s war with the Philistines. After a defeat at the hands of the Philistines, the Israelites decided to take the ark with them into battle. However, they were defeated, and the Philistines captured the ark (1 Sam 4). The ark then began a journey through Philistine territory, where both the Philistine deity’s image and the Philistines themselves suffered harm because of the presence of the ark, until eventually the Philistines decided to send it back to Israel. The ark returned to Beth Shemesh, where many Israelites died when they looked at the ark.
When David decided to bring the ark to Jerusalem, the Israelites made a new cart and brought it from the house of Abinadab towards Jerusalem. Uzzah and Ahio, the sons of Abinadab, led the cart. However, when the oxen stumbled and Uzzah steadied the ark with his hand, YHWH struck him dead (2 Sam 6:1-7). The ark then stayed at the home of Obed-Edom the Gittite for three months (2 Sam 6:11). Seeing the blessing given to Obed-Edom, David decided to return the ark to Jerusalem. He arranged for extensive sacrifices and he himself danced for joy along the way (this incurred the scorn of his wife Michal).
Afterwards, the ark stayed in a tent in Jerusalem (2 Sam 11:11), even when David fled Jerusalem (2 Sam 15:24-29). The ark is not mentioned again in the historical books until a final reference from the time of Josiah, who commanded the Levites to put the ark into the temple and not carry it on their shoulders (2 Chr 35:3). Outside the Pentateuch and the historical books, the ark appears only twice in the Old Testament. First, a psalmist draws on Solomon’s prayer of temple dedication (2 Chr 6:41) and calls on YHWH to “arise to your rest, you and the ark of your strength” (Ps 132:8).
Significance and Symbolism
The significance of the ark of the covenant centers on the divine presence of YHWH with his people, Israel. Coming after the making of the covenant with the people at Sinai, the ark demonstrated the reality of YHWH’s dedication to Israel. However, how that divine presence functions depends on the text.
One function of the ark was communication with God. Moses heard God speaking to him from between the cherubim (Num 7:89). YHWH guided Israel in the wilderness through the ark, instructing the people where to go (Num 10:33-36). Likewise, Joshua fell prostrate before the ark and YHWH spoke to him there (Josh 7:6-15). YHWH provided an oracle to Israel from the ark during the time of the judges (Judg 20:27-28). According to Chronicles, the priests spoke to YHWH before the ark, offering praise and thanks to the God of Israel (1 Chr 16:4-6, 37).
This is reflected most clearly in the martial prayer of Moses that YHWH would defeat their enemies when the ark was set out (Num 10:35). The lack of the presence of the ark in the attack on Canaan symbolized YHWH’s absence and led to defeat (Num 14:44). The presence of the ark at the Jordan River caused it to stop flowing (Josh 3-4). Likewise, the ark in the circular journeys around Jericho indicated YHWH’s hand in the assault (Josh 6). Although the presence of the ark in the battle against the Philistines did not bring victory to Israel, YHWH was careful to demonstrate that he was not defeated as the ark brought calamity on the Philistines wherever it went, until the Philistines sent it back to Israel (1 Sam 4-6).
When it was returned to Israel, the ark brought judgment to those even within Israel who treated it lightly (1 Sam 6:13-21; 2 Sam 6:1-9), but it brought blessing to those who honored it (2 Sam 6:10-11). Some texts emphasize the exclusive nature of the divine presence manifested in the ark of the covenant. Solomon says that the places where the ark went were holy, so the daughter of Pharaoh could not live in Jerusalem (2 Chr 8:11). In both the tabernacle and the temple, the ark of the covenant was in the innermost part of the sacred structure where no one except the high priest could go (and that only once a year).
It is possible that the cherubim on the ark were meant to be a throne for YHWH, since a few texts describe YHWH “sitting on the cherubim” (1 Sam 4:4; 6:2). However, while a throne understanding of the cherubim is possible, the ark is not called a throne. Most likely, the divine presence associated with the ark of the covenant should not be too much narrowed, as that could make the ark too similar to a divine image. Since divine images were banned in ancient Israel and the ark occupied the space in the temple that a divine image would normally have occupied, YHWH carefully leaves vague how exactly his presence was manifested in the ark.
The ark of the covenant as a place of atonement is suggested by the usual translation of the כפרת of the ark as the “mercy seat” or “atonement cover,” and the detail that the high priest would sprinkle blood from the sacrifice of a bull and a goat on the mercy seat during the rituals of the Day of Atonement (Lev 16:14-15).
Names of the Ark
The Ark of the Covenant has been known by several names throughout history. Here are some of the most common:
- The ark of the covenant
- The ark of the testimony
Theories of Origin and Egyptian Influence
Scholars have speculated that the ark might have been inspired by a variety of sources. The most likely sources are Egyptian, as the ark looks similar to the sacred boats (sometimes called barques) in Egypt. These barques often had poles and were carried in religious ceremonies. Scott B. Noegel points to ancient Egypt of the Late Bronze Age (~1550 - 1200 BC) as the source of inspiration for the lost Ark of the Covenant, specifically the sacred barque.
For example, from the tomb of Tutankhamun comes a similar ark, made of wood and covered completely in hammered gold foil. This box was supported by wooden poles from the base, and was surmounted by Anubis, the jackal-bodied god of the dead. The physical dimensions are also very similar between the two chests.
Ark of the Covenant. Painted between 1865 and 1880, Erastus Salisbury Field.
All throughout Egyptian history, the boat, or barque, was seen as the fundamental mode of conveyance, including for the gods. In mythology, Ra sailed through the sky on his solar barque, and through the underworld on his boat of millions of years. During festivals, statues of various gods were placed on thrones inside golden shrines behind veils and paraded above the crowds on two poles by pure-washed priests. Often these barques contained flanking protective creatures, such as winged goddesses or sphinxes, similar to the “cherubim” of the Ark.
There is also abundant evidence from Luxor and Karnak of these processions of the high god Amun-Ra, whose golden statue was carried in a divine golden litter via two poles very similar to the Ark. These barques dispensed oracles in much the same way the Ark did with Samuel, David, Solomon, and even Moses: “When Moses entered the tent of meeting to speak with the Lord, he heard the voice speaking to him from between the two cherubim … In this way the Lord spoke to him.” (Numbers 7: 89).
In 1 Samuel 4:4, the ark is likened to the throne of God in a very royal sense: “…and they brought back the ark of the covenant of the Lord Almighty, who is enthroned between the cherubim.” This was indeed common of the Bronze and early Iron Ages not only in Egypt but across the Near East - thrones of cherubim were always seats of gods and kings.
Another function of sacred barques was to be the repository of covenant agreements, as in the case of Ramses II: “The writing of the covenant that I made to the Great King, and which the King of Hattu has made with me, lies beneath the feet of the god Ra. The great gods are witnesses to it.” This is one of the Ark’s prime functions - to be the repository of the Law of the Covenant between Yahweh and Israel: “Then put in the ark the tablets of the covenant law, which I will give you” (Exodus 25:16).
Akhenaten ruled from 1373 to 1337 BCE and has been called Egypt’s Heretic King because he altered nearly every traditional aspect of Egyptian life. He installed a new monotheistic deity called the Aten, who was depicted as a sun disc with rays ending in life-bearing hands, and shockingly not as a human or animal, as were all the other Egyptian deities.
Amarna guru Barry Kemp notes that Egyptian temples during Akhenaten’s time had many cultic objects, the most important of which were either made of solid metal (gold, silver, or bronze) or wood overlain with gold leaf. This is identical to the Tabernacle of Moses, which contained both metallic objects and wooden ones overlain with gold leaf, such as the lost Ark of the Covenant. The best examples to survive intact from this period are the gilded items from Tutankhamun’s tomb, including the Anubis shrine.
When the Tabernacle of Moses and its equipment are compared to Tutankhamun’s treasures and Akhenaten’s Great Aten Temple, we find abundant similarities. They are both elongated structures with three areas of increasing holiness. Both have gilded wooden tables topped with twelve distinct flat, circular bread loaves, burning incense on golden stands, washing basins, slaughter courts and altars, and even tent structures. Both also have relatively small sanctuaries at the heart of their respective structures.
The UnXplained: Unearthing the Ark of the Covenant's Secrets
The Ark's Disappearance and Theories of its Location
But the Lord, told the prophet Jeremiah that there was a time coming when the Ark of the Covenant would be remembered no more (Jeremiah 3:15-16).The prophet Jeremiah (Jeremiah 31:31-34) and then Ezekiel (Ezekiel 36:25-27) looked forward to the time when God’s laws would be written on men’s hearts, and they would be new hearts, given along with a new spirit put within us.
They will no longer say “the ark of the covenant of YHWH,” and it shall not come to their mind, and they will not remember it, and they will not long for it, and it shall not be made again.
The last reference to the presence of the ark is in the time of Josiah, who reigned from 640 to 609 BCE (2 Chr 35:3). One Jewish tradition says that Josiah hid the ark before the Babylonian conquest, but the account of Josiah’s life in the Old Testament makes it unlikely that he was expecting a complete defeat at the hands of the Babyl... David A.
Two medieval traditions about the destiny of the ark remain popular today, though both are highly improbable. The most prominent is that the ark was taken to Ethiopia by the son of Solomon and the queen of Sheba, where a church claims to possess the ark today. However, no ancient evidence exists for this tradition, and it does not account for the presence of the ark in Jerusalem during the time of Josiah. Another tradition suggests that the ark was taken by the Romans after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE and taken to Rome, where it was placed in Saint John Lateran’s Basilica. So what happened to the ark? We simply do not know.For two thousand years now, one of the proposed locations of the missing Ark has been under Mount Nebo in Jordan. Mount Nebo was the mountain which Moses climbed to view the entire Holy Land, as well as on which he later died. Over seven centuries later, as the Babylonian armies closed in on Jerusalem, the prophet Jeremiah supposedly hid the ark on Mount Nebo.
I believe there are many secret connections between Akhenaten and Mount Nebo. I believe the real secret of its etymology lies in an even earlier word: nebu, the Egyptian word for gold. It was a favourite of Akhenaten’s, and thus Mount Nebo could also translate as “Mount of Gold”. How fascinating that Moses would die and be buried in the Mountain “of Gold” - a metal believed indestructible and eternal by the Egyptians, and associated with mountain tombs, death, and resurrection. Gold was central to sacred kingship in Egypt, and we know Akhenaten and his court were swimming in it.
Other Traditions and Beliefs
Jewish tradition holds various views on the Ark’s fate, including that it was taken to Babylon, hidden by King Josiah in the Temple or underground chambers, or concealed by Jeremiah in a cave on Mount Nebo. The Ethiopian Orthodox Church asserts it is housed in Axum; the Lemba people of southern Africa claim ancestral possession with a replica in Zimbabwe; some traditions say it was in Rome or Ireland but lost, though no verified evidence conclusively confirms its location today. It is honored by Samaritans, symbolized in Christianity as a type of Christ and the Virgin Mary, mentioned in the Quran, and viewed with spiritual significance in the Baháʼí Faith.
The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church claims to possess the Ark of the Covenant in Axum. The Ark is kept under guard in a treasury near the Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion. Replicas of the tablets within the Ark, or tabots, are kept in every Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church. Although the Kebra Nagast is the best-known account of this belief, the belief predates the document. Abu al-Makarim, writing in the last quarter of the twelfth century, makes one early reference to this belief that they possessed the Ark.
Samaritan tradition claims that the Ark of the Covenant had been kept at a sanctuary on Mt. In the New Testament, the Ark is mentioned in the Letter to the Hebrews and the Revelation to St. John. The contents of the ark were seen by Church Fathers including Thomas Aquinas as symbolic of the attributes of Jesus Christ: the manna as the Holy Eucharist; Aaron's rod as Jesus' eternal priestly authority; and the tablets of the Law, as the Lawgiver himself.[109][110] Thomas Aquinas compared the two types of materials of the ark to the two natures of Christ in the hypostatic union (Jesus having human and divine natures).
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