When we refer to ancient Egypt, what we tend to think about is pyramids, pharaohs and hieroglyphics. However, in addition to architecture and art, Egypt came up with one of the oldest and most powerful systems of law. Ancient Egyptian Law was not a collection of written regulations but a lifestyle, which was closely connected with religion, morality, and social order.
This article explores the nature of law in ancient Egypt by providing answers to such questions as: Who created the laws in Ancient Egypt? What is the list of laws in ancient Egypt? What do we get to know about the 10 Laws of Ancient Egypt?
The history of Egyptian law is longer than that of any other civilization. Even after the Roman occupation, elements of Egyptian law were retained outside the major urban areas.
Let's delve into the core elements and principles that defined the legal landscape of ancient Egypt.
1. Maat: The Foundation of Egyptian Justice
Maat, which is an idea of veracity, equilibrium and order in the universe, was at the centre of Egyptian justice. Egyptians were convinced that in order to make society go on smoothly, humans needed to live by ma’at. This implied being just, truthful and considerate of divine order.
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Under Kemet cosmology, Maat is designed to avert chaos (Isfet) and maintain truth (Maat). The symbol for truth, justice, balance, and order is the Goddess Maat.
Photo: Plate 3 of the Papyrus of Ani.
2. The Absence of Formal Law Codes
Egypt did not have the use of set law texts, as was the case in Mesopotamia or Greece, where laws were written into codes. Rather, judges and officials were supposed to use ma’ath on the situation. This gave it flexibility, but also resulted in the fact that results might be subjective. No formal Egyptian code of law has been preserved, although several pharaohs, such as Bocchoris (c. 722-c. 715 bc), were known as lawgivers.
The system was more adaptable and less written down in comparison to the written codes of Mesopotamia or the elaborate laws of Rome. It was always concerned with the principles of justice and not the technical rules. This allowed judges some freedom as well as provided a possibility of bias.
3. The Pharaoh: The Supreme Lawgiver
The question Who made the laws in Ancient Egypt? is one of the most widespread. The solution is easy: the pharaoh. The pharaoh was the supreme source of religion and law since he was the emissary of the gods on earth. The ultimate authority in the settlement of disputes was the pharaoh, whose decrees were supreme.
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The king, as a king god, was the supreme judge and law giver. The king (with laws) was in a position to transform the vertical belief in maat (between man and the gods) to horizontal reality (maat between people on earth). The king's primary duty was to uphold the order of creation which had been established on the primeval mound at the time of creation and kingship in Egypt therefore represented the effective power of maat As the son of the Sun-god he was entrusted with the task of upholding maat.
The pharaoh's duty was to defend maat in order to maintain and restore order, which he did by issuing appropriate laws. Law was therefore tied up with a religious world view and represented the rules regulating the behaviour of members of society. The king upheld the law and was also subject to the law.
4. The Role of the Vizier
Although the pharaoh was the lawgiver, he hardly dealt with common disputes. He instead left the power to his closest advisor, the vizier. The vizier was a prime minister and a chief justice in one. He presided over the courts, nominated the judges and ensured that legal cases were dealt with justly.
Next to the pharaoh, the most powerful individual was the vizier, who directed all administrative branches of the government. He sat in judgment on court cases and appointed magistrates as part of his legal duties. The Egyptian vizier had many responsibilities and one of them was the practical administration of justice.
5. Kenbet Courts: Regional Justice
Judges and local officials, in their turn, applied the principles of maath to real cases, i.e. Kenbet Courts: This was the court that handled property, inheritance and criminal matters in the regions. Decision-making was typically done by a panel of individuals as opposed to individual judges, thus minimizing bias. Nevertheless, when a verdict was passed, that was it.
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In a legal proceeding, the plaintiff was required to bring suit. The tribunal then ordered the defendant to appear in court if a point of law seemed to be involved in the dispute. Scribes employed in the legal system supplied procedural information; the parties were not represented by legal advocates.
Both parties spoke for themselves and presented any pertinent documentary evidence. Witnesses sometimes were called, but usually the judge ruled on the grounds of the documents and the testimony of each party. The judgment included recommendations for preserving the written record of the trial-possibly the main reason why many of these documents are extant.
6. Presumption of Guilt
During trials in law courts, the accuser was not required to prove anything but the accused. An individual was usually deemed guilty before he or she was found not guilty.
7. The Importance of Testimony
Testimony of a witness was very important, and false testimony would be highly punishable. A false charge, therefore, was considered a grave offense and not only because it disgraced an innocent citizen but because it called into question the efficacy of the law.
If an innocent person could be punished by a system which claimed divine origin then either the system was wrong or the gods were, and the authorities were not interested in having people debate those points.
8. Legal Rights of Women
Amazingly, women were far enjoying major legal rights. They were allowed to own property, divorce their husbands and take their cases to court. The position of women in the law is one of the notable contrasts between Egyptian law and the law in many other ancient societies. This provided them with much greater freedom than women in Greece or Rome in where women were generally subject to male protection.
Legal judgments pertaining to the family and rights of succession clearly demonstrate that women as well as men were granted full rights under the laws of ancient Egypt. Women owned and bequeathed property, filed lawsuits, and bore witness in court proceedings without the authority of their father or husband.
9. Punishments and Deterrence
Punishments in Egypt were often severe, designed to maintain order and deter wrongdoing. Theft from tombs was especially serious, since it was not only a crime against property but also a violation of the afterlife. Still, the law allowed flexibility.
In general, if the crime was serious - such as rape, murder, theft on a large scale, or tomb robbing - the penalty was death or disfigurement.
10. Maat and the Afterlife
The Egyptian law was not merely concerned with life on earth. Maat was an extension of the afterlife. The Egyptians happened to believe that the soul of every individual would be judged in the hall of Maat after death. The heart was made equal to the feather of truth. The soul had gone to the eternal paradise in case the heart was lighter.
The duat (underworld as the place for judgment) is where the popular Kemet funerary scene of the Hall of Two Truths is depicted in the various versions of the “Egyptian Book of the Dead: The Papyrus of Ani,” edited by E.A. Wallis Budge.
In Chapter 30B of The Papyrus of Ani entitled “Chapter for Not Letting Ani’s Heart Create Opposition Against Him, in the Gods’ Domain,” we see the deceased scribe standing before his own heart/soul (ka) on the scale of Maat. On the opposite scale is the Goddess Maat’s feather of truth (Shu). The head of the Goddess Maat is depicted atop the scales of justice.
Thoth, also known by other names such as Tehuti, stands holding a tablet and a writing tool to record the results from the scales. After the petitioner’s testimony containing the 42 affirmative declarations, the weighing of the ka for truth, and the reading of the scales, it is said that the doer of Maat is administered Maat.
This ideology made Egyptians adhere to ma’at not just so as to escape punishment in this world but also to get a blessed afterlife.
Even though the Egyptian law was effective over the centuries, it increased corruption in the later stages. Bribes were accepted by the officials, abuse of power by the police and false testimony were the order of the day.
The legal system of Egypt was also failing, as Egypt was becoming weak politically. Egyptian traditions were combined with foreign systems under the Greek and Roman rule and, as a result, the pure Egyptian law was finally destroyed.
Ancient Egyptian Law was not a set of rules but rather a moral and spiritual one. Based on ma’at, it influenced both everyday life and the postmortem world. The pharaoh was the center of power, and common citizens were engaged in a court system of resolving disputes, contracts and crimes. Although there is no extant code of written law, the ideas of Egyptian law are alive today.
Table: Key Aspects of Ancient Egyptian Law
| Aspect | Description |
|---|---|
| Maat | The central principle of truth, justice, and cosmic order. |
| Pharaoh | The supreme lawgiver and representative of the gods. |
| Vizier | The chief administrator of justice and advisor to the pharaoh. |
| Courts | Kenbet Courts: handled property, inheritance and criminal matters in the regions. |
| Women's Rights | Women had the right to own property, divorce, and take cases to court. |
| Punishments | Severe punishments were designed to maintain order and deter wrongdoing. |
| Afterlife | The soul was judged in the hall of Maat after death. |
The FULL STORY of MA'AT (Goddess of Justice) – Every Spiritualist MUST KNOW This
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